Middle+East

1. Culture 2. Geography 3. Religion 4. Diplomatic ties?? alliances, etc.

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NOTES PG. 661-666 & 727-729

Egypt and the Rise of Nationalism in the Middle East · Egypt = one country in Afro-Asian world where nationalism preceded European conquest/domination · British invasion in 1882 = aimed at liberation of Egyptian people, however British interference = double colonization for Egyptians by Turkish khedives · Government policy = determined by Lord Cromer o Pushed for much needed economic reforms that reduced debts of puppet khedive regime o Oversaw reforms in bureaucracy and construction (irrigation+other public works) o Largely profited middle and upper class, small percentage of people · British = relied heavily on local land owning notables to extend their control in rural areas · Ayans = abused privilege o As their wealth grew, as did contrast between the different classes o Had plentiful leisure time to spend in city (Cairo), estate = run by hired managers · Resistance to occupation = middle class (as upper class and British officials = clumped) · Sons of effendi (prosperous business and professional families that made up much of middle class) = led to lead Egyptian independence o India = uprising = lawyers o Egypt = uprising = journalists · Egyptian writers = attacked British and corruption of khedival regime (OOH, LIKE TODAY!!!) · British repression put down several riots/retaliations against British and Turco-Egyptians but hostility = apparent: Dinshawai incident o Confrontation between British and Egyptian subjects o Though overall small clash, British response = undermined any support left for occupation · British officers = arrogant, pigeons = food for Egyptians, took it as a pastime, fired in crowd, for a British officer killed, hung four, in other nearby towns Egyptians publicly flogged (Hm, like slaves, History replays itself.. or rather at the same time) · 1913 – British = largely intimidated by Egyptian nationalism to grant constitution and representation in a parliament. · World War I and British declaration of martial law put temporary end to nationalist agitation War and Nationalist Movements in the Middle East

· The resistance = conveyed by Egyptians = spread to much of Middle East after WWI. · Turks = sided with Central Powers, = took a big hit - Mustafa Kemal aka Ataturk = rallied Turkish forces and gradually drove back Greek armies intent on colonizing the Turkish homeland 1923 - independent Turkish republic established at cost of expulsion on tens of thousands of ethnic Greeks - Ataturk = established broad range of reforms, radical changes in the 1920s-30s reflected western values - Arab nationalists responded to the growing threat of Entente powers and betrayed promises to preserve Arab Independence that British made in 1915-16 - Hussein - sherif of Mecca used promises to convince Arabs to rise in support of BRitain's war against the Turks - alliess post war violation of promises humiliated and deeply angered Arabs throughout the Middle East - Europeans faced stiff mandates in areas they occupied in the Leagues of Nations - disposition of Palestine = intensified anger in nationalists - promises mad by British to Palestine where they recieved a League of Nations mandate to Jewish Zions and Arabs = complicated situation - Lord Balfour = promised Zionists that his govt would promise Jewish homeland --> Balfour Declaration, which was approved by the British war Cabinet which fed Zionist aspirations for the Jewish people to return to their ancient Middle Eastern lands of origin - Dreams led to formation of various organizations, and the persecution of Jews in Eastern Europe - Leon Pinsker called for return to Holy Land - Jewish support for assimilation came in 1894 after Theodor Herzl and est. Austrian journalist who was stunned by French mobs "Death to Jews" - Alfred Dreyfus - World Zionist Organization - promoted Jewish migration and settlement in Palestine until a Zionist state could be established in the region - Lord Balfour = liar Arabs as none of his promises/wartime assurances stuck that Entente powers against Turks would guarantee Independence after the war ; created hostility towards Jewish from Arabs when their migration to Palestine = ^^f - British attempts to promote Jewish emigration = not matched by Arabs of Palestine. (Hey... Mr. Green... its the British's fault... u guys arent great.. at all) REVOLT IN EGYPT, 1919 - Egypt declared a protectorate in 1914 - heavy garrisons from Entente forces = heavy drain on food supplies + forced labor = widespread discontent - When Egyptian leaders = denied permission to go to France to put case for Egyptian self determination to peacemakers at Versailles, most government leaders in Egypt = resigned - student leaders = RIOTS - Wafd (it means delegation) party = led by Sa'd Zaghul emerged - British commission for upheaval in Egypt met with heavy civil disobedience and forced British to negotiate for eventual withdrawal from Egypt. - British withdrawal, began in 1922 and then continued to 1936 with the withdrawal from the Suez Canal. BUT, Khedival regime = still there - Egyptian leaders of Wafd pary and Union parties although they had a large amount of influence did nothing to relieve increasing misery of the great majority of the Egyptians - ayan households and professional/merchant classes = used influence and wealth to amass huge laborers - there were few political leaders who had time to push for land reforms and public works projects - social bankruptcy of nationalist political dominance that preceded military coup by Gamal Abdul Nasser = revealed by UN studies that only 6% actually owend 7-% of Egypts land.

P. 727 - 729 CONFLICTING NATIONALISMS: ARABS, IRAELIS, AND PAELSTINIAN QUESTION - Egypt, Iraq, Syria + other Middle Eastern states TECHNICALLY gained indepenence between world wars although European influence = still strong - WWII = more independnce although not until 1970s were governemnts strong enough to shake off Western influence of oil fields (HI, AMERICA, HI IRAQ) - Hitler = genocide = provided powerful support for Zionists insistence that Jews must have their own homelands; also won international sympathy Major Muslim revolt = between 1936 and 1939, decimated leadership of Palestinian Arab community and further strengthened the British resolve to stem flow of Jewish immigrants to Palestine - Haganah and several other underground terrorist organizations = violent Zionist resistance to British presence in Palestine. - British = partition - United Nations = NEWWW and provided international body that could give a semblance of legality to the proceedings, UN aprovied partition of Palestine into Arab and Jewish countries because of post war revelations of horrors of Hitler's Final Solution - Arab states surrounding new nationo f Israel VEHEMENTLY opposed UN action and two sides engaged in all out warfare. - Zionists although outnumbered = better equipped and held onto tiny patchwork state, AND expanded :P - sealed persisting hostility between Arabs and Israelis that had been all consuming issue in region and major international problem to present day

p. 798 - 801, 802-803 MILITARY RESPONSES: DICTATORSHIPS AND REVOLUTIONS - In times of political breakdowns/social conflicts, military = monopoly power to resolve - prohibited the start/rise of civilian parties - Gamar Abdul Nasser; --> egypt --> 1952 coup - Free Officers Movement, secret organization within Egyptian military, studied conditions in country/prep for takeover - loosely tied to Muslim Brotherhood, founded by Hasan Al Bana, focused on social uplift and widespread reforms - Khedival regime = falling apart after Arab-Israeli war, military coup in 1952 ended regime; monarchy in Egypt = ended- - Government = main employer of people - establish Egypt's economic independence - Anwar Sadat = Nasser's succesor, dismantled massive state apparatus - Hosni Mubarak = followed Sadat's lead - Ayotollah Ruholla Khomeini - throwback to religious fervor of 1880s Sudan

Leader Analysis Sheet Dictator || 1956-Death ||
 * Name of Leader: **Gamal Abdul Nasser** ||
 * Lifespan || Title: Second President of Egypt
 * Country/region: Egypt || Years in Power
 * Political, Social, & Economic Conditions Prior to Leaders Gaining Power

- monarchy in Sudan and Egypt - Egypt = independece in mid 1930s - civilian political parties = banned - most military leaders = anti communist - period of modernization - socialist reforms in Egypt - pan-Arab nationalism - armed froces = divided by religious and ethnic rivalries ||
 * Ideology, Motivation, Goals:

- promoted Arab nationalism - improve living standards for Egyptians - Weak government parties - Revolution in Egypt - intervene with all social/economic reforms - British/French presence out of Suez Canal ||
 * Significant Actions & events During Term of Power

- nationalized Suez Canal - central role in anti-imperialist efforts in Arab World/Africa - Association of Free Officers/Free Officers Movement (members from Muslim Brotherhood, Egyptian Communist Party, Young Egypt, aristocracy, etc.) - established international Non-Aligned Movement - Pan Arabianism aka Nasserism - //land reforms > limited how much land someone can own// //- government = main employer in Egypt// //- restrictionson foreign investments// //- esetavblished foreign policy that wanted to destroy newly established Israeli state// ||
 * Short-Term effects:

- uncontrolled population rising - Decline in fertility of farmlands because of Aswan Dam project || Long-Term Effects - Nasser = symbol of Arab freedom/dignity - Suez canal = EGYPTIAN HANDS - bye bye West ||

Leader Analysis Sheet “Supreme Leader” || 1956-Death ||
 * Name of Leader: **Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini** ||
 * Lifespan || Title: Iranian Religious Leader/Political leader
 * Country/region: Iran || Years in Power
 * Political, Social, & Economic Conditions Prior to Leaders Gaining Power

- most of Islam = religious, traditional, and alienated from Westernization which was forced by Shah - “White Revolution” – much opposition - monarchy – Shah ||
 * Ideology, Motivation, Goals:

- influenced by Aristotle and Plato - laws of society = made by God - system of clerical rule = needed to prevent injustice, corruption, oppression by powerful over poor/weak + to destroy anti-Islamic influence by non-Muslim foreign powers - claimed to rescue Islamic faithful from imperialist westerners - claimed to have magical powers - bent on defending/restoring true beliefs, traditions, and institutions of Islamic civilizations ||
 * Significant Actions & events During Term of Power

- called for Islamic revolutions across the globe - promised radical change, moderate leaders = replaced by radical religious figures eager to obey Khomeini’s every command - Iran = distanced from atheistic communist world - Secular influence sin law and government = supplanted by strict Islamic legal codes || - National Democratic Front/Muslim’s People Republican People = attacked/banned || Long-Term Effects - Islamic Constitution - Islamic republic ||
 * Short-Term effects:

Nancy Chung Mr. Green A.P. World History 4 Apr 2011 Middle East: Summary

The Middle East from the 1914 to the present went through a spike in nationalism movements which called for the independence and anti-Westernization of many Islamic countries. Tensions between the Middle East and the West would increase, as former colonies promised independence would soon realize that this, was also up for compromise. Countries like Egypt among others would come to precede European domination, and gain control of the link that tied them to the Western world – the Suez Canal. Among nationalist leaders, there was conflict regarding how to approach the issue of nationalism. Struggles also arose within the Middle East because of reactions to Western interference with Middle Eastern affairs such as the partitiion of Palestine. Would the West have to be seen as a resource or an enemy? Was it better to be radical or moderate? These conflicts would divide and unite some of the Middle East. For an extended period of time, Western influence continued to dominate in some areas, however as time went on, if it weren't after World War I, after World War II more countries continued to fling off Western domination and influence. Leaders such as Nasser, Khoemeini, and Mubarak rose and took control of the Middle Eastern regions.

- Egyptian and Iranian movements = pushed for land reforms > WHY = Peasants = treated unfairly, landlords = too much land, restrictions - WEALTH CONTROL. Peasants = more people, = more support = :D
- Egyptians vehemently shrugged off Western influence while Indians embraced Western influence > WHY = Egyptians